The following extract is taken from Robert Sutherland’s new book “Putting God on Trial: The Biblical Book of Job” (Trafford, Victoria, 2004) It is reproduced with his permission and he retains the copyright. Mr.Sutherland is a Christian Canadian criminal defense lawyer instrumental in changing the Canadian law on aggravated assault and solicitor-client privilege. He is a Senior Fellow at the Mortimer J. Adler Centre for the Study of the Great Ideas. And he is a member of St.Stephen’s Anglican, Thunder Bay. The book has received high praise from Job scholars: David Clines, Norman Habel and Gerald Janzen. Several chapters and order information are online at http://www.bookofjob.org

“As a new Adam, Job is not just Everyman. Job is the best mankind has to offer. He is truly and fully human. He is what all of us could be and should be. In the judgment of the author, Job is “blameless and upright, one who fears God and turns away from evil”. (Job 1:1) Unlike the first Adam, Job is a completed work. “This man was the greatest of all the people of the east.” (Job 1:3) Since the people of the east were proverbially regarded as wise, [1] Job is presented as the wisest of the wise. His decisions as to how to lead a moral life are something all of us should emulate. That is especially the case when he raises the Oath of Innocence against God. The Oath of Innocence is a formal lawsuit against God for bringing evil into the world.

As a new Adam, Job will not face a simple test of blind obedience. Job’s test will require all the intellectual and moral resources a mature human being can muster. And that test will bring out the fullness of his name. The name “Job” means “where is my father.” [2] In part, his struggle is the search for a loving father God in the midst of a world of undeserved and unremitted suffering. The fate of all mankind will rest on his choices.

The author’s judgment on Job merits deeper examination. The terminology is the terminology of natural law. This may be the result of the international wisdom tradition of which The Book of Job is an important part. Or this may be the result of the author’s personal background. Job is presented as a jurist (Job 29:7-17) and the author himself may have been a jurist.

Natural law is the ethical theory that moral rules, laws in the broadest sense of the term, are deduced or derived from an examination of the natural needs that constitute human nature. Natural law asserts that that single reason behind all the moral rules is human nature itself, specifically the natural needs that define human nature. There is a certain structure to how morals are deduced or derived from natural law. This three-fold structure is called a syllogism, meaning a way of seeing things together. It begins with a major premise, an ethical principle. It proceeds with a minor premise, certain statements of fact. And it arrives at a conclusion which consists of certain moral rules. The logic is as simple as it is profound.

The following exposition of that framework is a tangential development out of those original texts so that modern readers can understand the basic parameters of natural law and the natural human need for truth. The ancient texts imply, support and sanction such a framework, even thought the ancient Jews never fully articulated such a framework. [3]

(1) The major premise of natural law is the basic ethical principle that “you ought to seek what’s really good for you.” This is a self-evident truth. Why? The opposite is unthinkable. It is unthinkable that “you ought to seek what’s really bad for you”. And, it is equally unthinkable that “you ought not to seek what’s really good for you”. [4]

(2) The minor premise consists of a number of statements of fact about what’s really good.

Those statements are discovered through the insight that “what’s really good is what fulfills a natural human need”. [5] All animals, including man, have a nature or essence. It is what separates one kind of animal from another kind of animal. It is what allows an observer to know that a particular individual is a member of one particular kind of animal as opposed to another. A nature consists of a set of species-specific characteristics or potentialities for development within a certain direction and within a certain range. Another name for these “dynamic dispositional tendencies” [6] is natural needs or desires. [7] These natural needs are universal within a species in the sense that all members, without exception, have them. They are eradicable within a species in the sense that all members, without exception, have them at all points in their life. And they are irresistible within a species in the sense that they are constantly seeking fulfillment. [8]

Human nature consists of the set of species-specific potentialities or natural needs all human beings share which are universal, eradicable and irresistible. The natural needs are distinguishable from acquired wants or acquired needs.

The insight that “what’s really good is what fulfills a natural need” is a self-evident truth. Why? There is no such thing as a wrong natural need. The very idea of a wrong natural need is unthinkable. We can imagine wrong wants. We can imagine wanting something that is bad for us as human beings. We can even imagine wanting it so strongly that we try to deceive ourselves and call it something good. Addictions are very good examples of such acquired needs. They are not universal, eradicable or irresistible. These acquired needs are not natural needs. They are not rooted in human nature itself. We can imagine wanting more of a good thing than is really good for us. We can imagine wanting less of a good thing than is really good for us. But we can never imagine a wrong natural need. If it were wrong, then we would not, by nature, need it. [9]

Not many natural needs meet the three-fold criteria of universality, eradicability and irresistibility. Scholars agree that those natural needs include the desire to know the truth, the desire to enjoy beauty, the desire to seek goodness, the desire to be free, the desire for justice, the desire for pleasure, the desire to love and be loved, the desire to work and creatively express one’s self, the desire for life, growth and health, the desire for food and drink, the desire for shelter. The desire for God may be an additional desire or it may be included in the penumbra of the desires for truth, goodness and beauty. These are needs all human beings have. They possess them at all points in their lives. These desires demand fulfillment. They may be satisfied or denied for periods of time, but they never really go away. These needs are matters of objective fact and they constitute human nature.

Real goods fulfill natural needs or desires. These real goods are biological, economic, social, political, psychological and religious goods. The biological goods include life, health and vigor. The economic goods include (a) a decent supply of the means of subsistence, (b) living and working conditions that are conducive to health, (c) medical care, (d) opportunities for access to the pleasures of sense, the pleasures of play, aesthetic pleasures, (e) opportunities for access to the goods of the mind through educational facilities in youth and adult life and (f) enough free time from subsistence work, both in youth and adult life, to take full advantage of these opportunities. The political goods include (a) liberty, (b) peace, both civil and external, (c) the political liberties of voting and holding office, together with (d) the protection of individual freedom by the prevention of violence, aggression, coercion, or intimidation and (e)

justice. The social goods include (a) equality of status, (b) equality of opportunity and (c) equality of treatment in all matters affecting the dignity of the human person. The psychological goods include (a)

the goods of personal association (family, friendship, and love), (b)

the goods of character (the cardinal virtues of prudence, justice, courage and temperance, and the theological virtues of faith, hope and love), and (c) the goods of the mind (creativity, knowledge, understanding and wisdom). The religious goods include awe and wonder, repentance and forgiveness, gratitude and worship and a personal relationship with God. All of these real goods are matters of objective fact. [10] Reasonable people reflecting on what it is to be human would agree that these are things people need for a good human life. The list may not be exhaustive, but it is very representative of the consensus that currently exists.

However, these real goods need ordering and proportioning so that they retain their overall goodness. That is the function of moral virtue. Moral virtue is the habit of rightly choosing the real goods that make for a good human life. The main virtues are the cardinal virtues: prudence, temperance, courage and justice. Prudence is the habit of rightly judging the means to obtaining those right ends. Temperance is the habit of resisting and limiting immediate pleasures for a future good. Courage is the habit of suffering pain or discomfort for a future good. Justice is the habit of concern for the good of others and community welfare. While they may be analytically distinct, they are not existentially distinct. You cannot possess one without the others. These virtues are matters of objective fact. [11]

(3) The conclusion is a basic moral rule derived or deduced from the combination of a single self-evidently true ethical principle and those objectively true matters of facts.

(a) “You should pursue and possess all the real goods that every human being needs by nature,

(b) properly ordered and proportioned so that each good is really good for you as a human being, and

(c) all the apparent goods that you yourself might want as an individual,

(d) provided your pursuit and possession of those apparent goods does not interfere with your or anyone else’s pursuit and possession of all the real goods every human being needs by nature. [12]

This is what constitutes the total good of man. This is what constitutes the good life. This is what constitutes happiness, for it is the pursuit and possession of everything you might rightly need or want such that you are lacking in nothing. This is what God intends in making man what he is. It is God’s general revelation in creation. It is rationally discoverable by all men, regardless of time or place. The author presents Job as one who has discovered that truth and made it his life.

The Bible itself is imbued with an ethic of natural law. [13] Most often, natural law is implicit, but every so often, it is made explicit. One would expect to find such explicit statements of natural law in portions of The Bible dealing with moral rules, because such statements are the articulations of the reason behind the rules. And that indeed is where the two formulations of it are to be found.

In the Holiness Code, Moses expresses his understanding of the basic ethical principle of natural law. “You shall be holy for I the LORD your God am holy.” (Leviticus 19:10) The key word here is “holy”. The Hebrew word behind it is “qodosh”. It is virtually synonymous with the Hebrew word “tam” used to describe Job. “Qodosh” means “holy”, “dedicated”, “devoted”, “separate”, “set apart for a special purpose”. [14] It describes three things: (1) the perfect fulfillment of (2) the purpose (3) for which something exists or is used. That purpose is found in the natural needs that define human nature. To paraphrase, Moses is saying “you should perfectly fulfill the purpose for which you exist, just as the LORD your God perfectly fulfills the purpose for which he exists.” The focus is on purpose within nature. The central ethical obligation is to perfectly fulfill the natural needs of man and to make one’s self fully available to God for his purposes. This is the heart of Old Testament morality. All the rest is commentary on the real goods that make for a good human life.

In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus expresses his understanding of the basic ethical principle of natural law. “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect.” (Matthew 5:6)

The key word here is “perfect”. The Greek word behind it is “teleios”. It is virtually identical with the Hebrew “tam” used to describe Job. “Teleios” means “perfect”, “well-rounded”, “whole”, “sound”, “mature”, “complete”. [15] It describes three things: (1) the complete actualization of (2) the potentialities (3)

that define the nature of something. Those potentialities are found in the natural desires that define human nature. “Teleios” is a word that has a long history in Greek ethical philosophy, especially in the natural law writings of Aristotle. The focus again is on potentialities within nature. Jesus is reworking and sharpening Moses’ formulation of the basic ethical principle of natural law. Complete actualization corresponds to perfect fulfillment. Potentialities correspond to purpose. The nature of something corresponds to that for which something exists or is used. To paraphrase, Jesus is saying that “you should be fully actualized, just as your heavenly Father is fully actualized”. “You should be truly and fully human, just as your heavenly Father is truly and fully divine.” The central ethical obligation is to fulfill the natural needs of man. It is an obligation to be all that you can be and to be the very best you can be. This is the heart of New Testament morality. All the rest is commentary on the real goods that make for a good human life.

Within this framework of natural law, evil is the “privation” of goodness. The good is the “integrity or perfection of being in all its orders: material, moral and spiritual”. Evil “consists in a privation, in the fact that a certain being lacks a good it requires to enjoy the integrity of its nature.” [16] To paraphrase Moses, evil is the frustration of the perfect fulfillment of the purpose for which something exists or is used. To paraphrase Jesus, evil is the frustration of the complete actualization of the potentialities that define the nature of something.

The terminology used to describe Job resonates with the ethic of natural law.

Job is “blameless”. The Hebrew “tam” here means “whole”, “complete”, “sound”, “lacking in nothing”, “fully integrated”, “blameless”, “perfect”. [17] The focus here is on human nature. Ideologically, “tam” covers the same ground as Moses’ “qodosh”. It describes the perfect fulfillment of the purpose for which a human being exists. It describes the perfect fulfillment of the natural needs that define human nature. Job is holy as the LORD his God is holy. Ideologically, “tam” covers the same ground as Jesus’ “teleios”. It is the complete and perfect actualization of all the natural desires that define human nature. Those actualizations are properly ordered and proportioned so that all the potentialities are fully integrated. Job is as truly and fully human as his heavenly father is truly and fully divine. Job is humanity at its very best. His maturity verges on sinlessness. [18]

In fact, “tam” is used to describe the sinlessness of Satan prior to his fall from grace. (Ezekiel 28:13) This single word governs all the other words that follow in the description of Job. They illustrate aspects of his blamelessness and are included within it.

Job is “upright”. The Hebrew “yashar” here means “upright”, “just”, “righteous”, “doing what is right and pleasing in the eyes of God”. [19] It describes two aspects of moral virtue: justice and righteousness. Justice is one of the cardinal virtues, the hinge on which the moral life swings. Justice is rendering unto another that which is their due or right. Justice is primarily a negative virtue. It indicates that one’s pursuit and possession of all the apparent goods a human being might want by nurture does not interfere with one’s own or anyone else’s pursuit and possession of all the real goods all human beings need by nature. Righteousness or love is one of the theological virtues. It is an extension and transformation of the cardinal virtue justice. Love is seeking the good of another, as opposed to one’s own good. Love is primarily a positive virtue. It describes all the positive assistance one gives in helping others with their pursuit and possession of all the real goods all human beings need by nature. This positive “doing of what is right”, as opposed to not “doing what is wrong”, is what constitutes “righteousness”. Job is virtuous: just and loving.

Job “fears God.” The Hebrew “yare Elohim” means the proper “awe”, “reverence” and “honor” a human being should have towards Almighty God. [20] The “totum bonum” is the pursuit and possession of the package of real goods that makes a person truly and fully human. It is the total good of man. “Tam” draws out this dimension in Job. The “summum bonum” is the pursuit and possession of the highest good within that package, a personal relationship with God. “Yare Elohim” draws out this dimension in Job. Job has it all. Job seeks first the kingdom of God and its righteousness and all has been added unto him.

Job “turns from evil.” The Hebrew “sara ra” here means not only “withdrawing from evil” but “avoiding evil” and “keeping oneself far from” it in the first place. [21]

The mature man is not the one who never does wrong, but the one who is quick to realize he has done wrong, to be sorry for it, to do restitution and to amend his character. This is what’s meant by withdrawing from evil. Unlike the first Adam, Job is not a man who fails to take personal responsibility for his actions and who tries to shift blame. Job is a mature Adam. However in Job’s case, the emphasis in the phrase “turns from evil” is on the latter component: “avoiding evil” and “keeping oneself far from” it in the first place. Unlike the first Adam, Job is not one who blunders into sin. When he raises his Oath of Innocence against God, he will do it with the integrity of his being. For Job, the Oath of Innocence will be the only way he can avoid sinning. A man of God must speak the truth at all costs.

The author’s judgment on Job is one of the important sign posts for any journey through The Book of Job. It is a judgment God himself will endorse twice in the next three scenes. This three-fold judgment is a strong endorsement of the morality of natural law. In his general revelation to mankind rooted in the hearts of men and women, God has given human beings both the intellect to discern right from wrong and the free will to choose the good. And God has given human beings sufficient common grace to do both. It is vitally important that Job is not an Israelite. He has not had any special revelation from God such as might be found in the Old Testament or the New Testament. And yet he perfectly fulfills the natural moral law written in the hearts of all men and women.”

Robert Sutherland

_____

[1] ibid, p. 50.

[2] Pope, M., The Anchor Bible: Job (Doubleday, New York, 1973) p. 6.

Clines, D.J.A., Job in The International Bible Commentary (Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 1979) p. 11.

[3] For a fuller exploration of their understanding and articulation, the reader might profitably look to James Barr’s Biblical Faith and Natural Theology (Oxford University Press, New York, 1995)

[4] Adler, M.J., Desires Right and Wrong: The Ethics of Enough (Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1991) p. 33.

[5] ——–, Ten Philosophical Mistakes (Collier Books, New York, 1985) pp. 123-127.

[6] Lisska, A.J., Aquinas’s Theory of Natural Law: An Analytic Reconstruction (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996)

p. 85-88, 101, 120, 124.

[7]Adler, M.J., Ten Philosophical Mistakes (Collier Books, New York, 1985) pp. 160-163.

[8] Fagothey, A., Right and Reason: Ethics in Theory and Practice (The C.V. Mosby Company, St.Louis, 1959)

p. 55.

[9] Adler, M.J., Six Great Ideas: Truth, Goodness and Beauty- Ideas We Judge By, Liberty, Equality, Justice- Ideas We Act On (Collier Books, New York, 1981) pp. 75-80.

[10] ——–, The Common Sense of Politics (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1971) pp. 24-25;

——–., The Time of Our Lives: The Ethics of Common Sense (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1970) p. 166, 206.

Finnis, J., Natural Law and Natural Rights (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1980) p. 83, 86-90.

[11] ——–, Desires Right and Wrong: The Ethics of Enough (Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1991) p. 62-64.

[12] ——–, The Time of Our Lives: The Ethics of Common Sense (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1970)

p. 133.

[13] For a fuller exploration of the biblical understanding and articulation, the reader might profitably look to James Barr’s Biblical Faith and Natural Theology (Oxford University Press, New York, 1995)

[14] Harris, R.L., Archer, G.L. and Waltke, B.K, Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament: Volume 2 (The Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, 1980) pp. 786-788;

Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament: Volume 3, Edit. E. Jenni and C. Westermann; Trans. M.E. Biddle (Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, 1997) pp. 1103-1118.;

New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis: Volume 3, Edit. W.A. Van Gemeren (Zondervan Publishing House, Grand Rapids, 1997) pp. 877-887.

[15] Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Volume 8, Edit. G.Kittel and G.Freidrich and Trans. G.W.Bromley (Wm.B.Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, 1972) p. 49-87.;

Theological Dictionary of the New Testament: Abridged in One Volume, Edit. G.Kittel and G.Freidrich and Trans. G.W.Bromley (Wm.B.Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, 1985) pp. 1161-1166.;

Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament, Edit. H.Balz and G.Schneider (William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, 1982-1983) p. 347-348.

[16] “Evil” in New Catholic Encyclopedia: Volume 5 (McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1967) p. 665.

[17] Harris, R.L., Archer, G.L. and Waltke, B.K, Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament: Volume 2 (The Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, 1980) pp. 973-974.;

Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament: Volume 3, Edit. E. Jenni and C. Westermann; Trans. M.E. Biddle (Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, 1997) pp. 1424-1428.;

New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis: Volume 4, Edit. W.A. Van Gemeren (Zondervan Publishing House, Grand Rapids, 1997) pp. 306-308.

[18] Sinlessness can mean one of two things: Job was sinless throughout life or Job was sinless at that point in time. Perhaps the only passage where Job may acknowledge sin is “for you write bitter things against me, and make me reap the iniquities of my youth.” (Job 13:26) The passage is ambiguous. First, the iniquities of youth may refer to so-called “sins” committed before the age of accountability. If so, then Job is not culpable for such acts and is protesting that God is wrongfully imposing punishment. Second, the iniquities of youth may refer to sins committed after the age of accountability, in Job’s teenage or early adult years. If Job had sinned in that way, then he clearly has repented and been forgiven. Job refers to God writing those “sins” down in his book of life. Yet in the second scene, God reviews the book of life and those sins are not there. If there once was such a record, it has long since been wiped clean. In any event, such forgiven sins of youth would not have been such to justify the evil that God has sent into his life.

[19] Harris, R.L., Archer, G.L. and Waltke, B.K, Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament: Volume 1 (The Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, 1980) pp. 417-418.;

Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament: Volume 2, Edit. E. Jenni and C. Westermann; Trans. M.E. Biddle (Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, 1997) pp. 588-590.;

New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis: Volume 2, Edit. W.A. Van Gemeren (Zondervan Publishing House, Grand Rapids, 1997) pp. 563-568.;

Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament: Volume 6, Edit. G.J.Botterweck, H.Ringgren; Trans. J.T.Willis (Wm.B.Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, 1974) pp. 463-472.

[20] Harris, R.L., Archer, G.L. and Waltke, B.K, Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament: Volume 1 (The Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, 1980) pp. 399-400.;

Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament: Volume 2, Edit. E. Jenni and C. Westermann; Trans. M.E. Biddle (Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, 1997) pp. 568-578.;

New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis: Volume 2, Edit. W.A. Van Gemeren (Zondervan Publishing House, Grand Rapids, 1997) pp. 527-533;

Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament: Volume 6, Edit. G.J.Botterweck, H.Ringgren; Trans. J.T.Willis (Wm.B.Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, 1974) pp. 290-315.

[21] Harris, R.L., Archer, G.L. and Waltke, B.K, Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament: Volume 2 (The Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, 1980) pp. 621.;

Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament: Volume 2, Edit. E. Jenni and C. Westermann; Trans. M.E. Biddle (Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, 1997) pp. 796.;

New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis: Volume 3, Edit. W.A. Van Gemeren (Zondervan Publishing House, Grand Rapids, 1997) pp. 238-239.